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The chlorophyte Volvox is one of only a few examples of a colonial organism, which behaves in some ways like a collection of individual cells, but in other ways like the specialized cells of a multicellular organism. Volvox colonies contain to 60, cells, each with two flagella, contained within a hollow, spherical matrix composed of a gelatinous glycoprotein secretion. Individual Volvox cells move in a coordinated fashion and are interconnected by cytoplasmic bridges.
Only a few of the cells reproduce to create daughter colonies, an example of basic cell specialization in this organism. Volvox aureus is a green alga in the supergroup Archaeplastida. This species exists as a colony, consisting of cells immersed in a gel-like matrix and intertwined with each other via hair-like cytoplasmic extensions. True multicellular organisms, such as the sea lettuce, Ulva , are represented among the chlorophytes.
In addition, some chlorophytes exist as large, multinucleate, single cells. Species in the genus Caulerpa exhibit flattened, fern-like foliage and can reach lengths of 3 meters.
Caulerpa species undergo nuclear division, but their cells do not complete cytokinesis, remaining instead as massive and elaborate single cells.
Caulerpa taxifolia is a chlorophyte consisting of a single cell containing potentially thousands of nuclei. Amoebozoa are a type of protist that is characterized by the presence of pseudopodia which they use for locomotion and feeding. Protists are eukaryotic organisms that are classified as unicellular, colonial, or multicellular organisms that do not have specialized tissues.
This identifying property sets protists apart from other organisms within the Eukarya domain. The amoebozoans are classified as protists with pseudopodia which are used in locomotion and feeding. Amoebozoans live in marine environments, fresh water, or in soil. In addition to the defining pseudopodia, they also lack a shell and do not have a fixed body. The pseudopodia which are characteristically exhibited include extensions which can be tube-like or flat lobes, rather than the hair-like pseudopodia of rhizarian amoeba.
Rhizarian amoeba are amoeboids with filose, reticulose, or microtubule-supported pseudopods and include the groups: Cercozoa, Foraminifera, and Radiolaria and are classified as bikonts.
The Amoebozoa include several groups of unicellular amoeba-like organisms that are free-living or parasites that are classified as unikonts. The best known and most well-studied member of this group is the slime mold. Additional members include the Archamoebae, Tubulinea, and Flabellinea. Pseudopodia structures : Amoebae with tubular and lobe-shaped pseudopodia, such as the ones seen under this microscope, would be morphologically classified as amoebozoans. A subset of the amoebozoans, the slime molds, has several morphological similarities to fungi that are thought to be the result of convergent evolution.
For instance, during times of stress, some slime molds develop into spore -generating fruiting bodies, similar to fungi. The slime molds are categorized on the basis of their life cycles into plasmodial or cellular types.
Plasmodial slime molds are composed of large, multinucleate cells that move along surfaces like an amorphous blob of slime during their feeding stage. Food particles are lifted and engulfed into the slime mold as it glides along.
Upon maturation, the plasmodium takes on a net-like appearance with the ability to form fruiting bodies, or sporangia, during times of stress. Haploid spores are produced by meiosis within the sporangia. These spores can be disseminated through the air or water to potentially land in more favorable environments.
If this occurs, the spores germinate to form ameboid or flagellate haploid cells that can combine with each other and produce a diploid zygotic slime mold to complete the life cycle. Badhamia utricularis : Badhamia utricularis: an example of a plasmodial slime mold with the ability to form a fruiting body.
The cellular slime molds function as independent amoeboid cells when nutrients are abundant. When food is depleted, cellular slime molds pile onto each other into a mass of cells that behaves as a single unit called a slug.
Some cells in the slug contribute to a 2—3-millimeter stalk, drying up and dying in the process. Cells atop the stalk form an asexual fruiting body that contains haploid spores.
As with plasmodial slime molds, the spores are disseminated and can germinate if they land in a moist environment. One representative genus of the cellular slime molds is Dictyostelium, which commonly exists in the damp soil of forests.
Plasmodial slime mold: Physarum polycephalum : Physarum polycephalum is an example of a cellular slime mold. The Archamoebae are a group of Amoebozoa distinguished by the absence of mitochondria.
They include genera that are internal parasites or commensals of animals Entamoeba and Endolimax. A few species are human pathogens, causing diseases such as amoebic dysentery.
The other genera of archamoebae live in freshwater habitats and are unusual among amoebae in possessing flagella. Most have a single nucleus and flagellum, but the giant amoeba, Pelomyxa , has many of each.
The Tubulinea are a major grouping of Amoebozoa, including most of the larger and more familiar amoebae like Amoeba , Arcella , and Difflugia. During locomotion, most Tubulinea have a roughly cylindrical form or produce numerous cylindrical pseudopods. Each cylinder advances by a single central stream of cytoplasm, granular in appearance, and has no subpseudopodia.
This distinguishes them from other amoeboid groups, although in some members this is not the normal type of locomotion. Privacy Policy. Skip to main content. Search for:. Groups of Protists. Excavata includes the protists: Diplomonads, Parabasalids and Euglenozoans. Diplomonads are defined by the presence of a nonfunctional, mitochrondrial-remnant organelle called a mitosome. Parabasalids are characterized by a semi-functional mitochondria referred to as a hydrogenosome; they are comprised of parasitic protists, such as Trichomonas vaginalis.
Euglenozoans can be classified as mixotrophs, heterotrophs, autotrophs, and parasites; they are defined by their use of flagella for movement. Key Terms mitosome : an organelle found within certain unicellular eukaryotes which lack mitochondria hydrogenosome : a membrane-bound organelle found in ciliates, trichomonads, and fungi which produces molecular hydrogen and ATP kinetoplast : a disk-shaped mass of circular DNA inside a large mitochondrion, found specifically in protozoa of the class Kinetoplastea.
Giardia lamblia The mammalian intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia, visualized here using scanning electron microscopy, is a waterborne protist that causes severe diarrhea when ingested. Chromalveolata: Alveolates Alveolates are defined by the presence of an alveolus beneath the cell membrane and include dinoflagellates, apicomplexans and ciliates.
Learning Objectives Evaluate traits associated with protists classified as alveolates which include dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates. Key Takeaways Key Points Alveolates are classified under the group Chromalveolata which developed as a result of a secondary endosymbiotic event.
Dinoflagellates are defined by their flagella structure which lays perpendicular and fits into the cellulose plates of the dinoflagellate, promoting a spinning motion. Apicomplexans are defined by the asymmetrical distribution of their microtubules, fibrin, and vacuoles; they include the parasitic protist Plasmodium which causes malaria.
Ciliates are defined by the presence of cilia such as the oral groove in the Paramecium , which beat synchronously to aid the organism in locomotion and obtaining nutrients.
Ciliates are defined by the presence of cilia, which beat synchronously, to aid the organism in locomotion and obtaining nutrients, such as the oral groove in the Paramecium. Key Terms osmoregulation : the homeostatic regulation of osmotic pressure in the body in order to maintain a constant water content plastid : any of various organelles found in the cells of plants and algae, often concerned with photosynthesis conjugation : the temporary fusion of organisms, especially as part of sexual reproduction.
Under conditions of exposure of PECs with or without T. Prebleed rabbit serum was used as the negative control and gave no reactivity. Further evidence supporting a role for HMGA1 in prostate carcinogenesis includes the observation that high levels of HMGA1 in prostate cancer cells are related to enhanced proliferation and metastasis in vivo, studies suggesting that HMGA1 is involved in prostate cell chromosomal instability and rearrangements, and the fact that HMGA1 regulates transcription of a number of genes involved in various aspects of cell transformation and metastatic tumor progression.
HMGA1 transcription is also known to be induced by cell stress and ILmediated inflammation, possibly providing a further mechanism by which T. As we have also shown that T. In this case induced transcriptional activation of the HMGA1 proto-oncogene contributes directly to prostate cancer progression via pathways involving COX2 and the prostate-specific membrane antigen.
The inset shows a T. We believe that COX-2 may be involved in T. Like HMGA1, COX-2 over-expression has also been demonstrated in many other cancers, including breast, colorectal, head and neck, esophageal and non-small-cell lung cancers, and prostatic hyperplasia.
Interestingly, polyamines also regulate levels of COX-2 in human airway epithelial cells [26] , and T. Polyamines play a role in cell cycle regulation in various types of cancers. The secreted polyamines, in concert with the induced host genes, might alter cell cycle regulation and result in a proliferative phenotype.
In summary, although several epidemiologic studies have observed positive associations between T. We present testable hypotheses and a working model Figure 2 supported by evidence [19] and believe that future research should investigate these novel findings at the molecular level.
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.
PLoS Pathog. Published online Aug 9. Magnuson , 2 Raymond Reeves , 2 and J. Nancy S. Joseph Heitman, Editor. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are properly credited.
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. We think that somehow they function to reduce the expression or the functioning of these transposable elements. While Warring has been tackling the weird side of trichomonas, Dr Ross Low has been hard at work with Dr Kevin Tyler at the University of East Anglia applying comparative genomics to understand the evolution of this strange parasite - particularly in light of its devastating effect on British greenfinches.
And once the UK greenfinch population gets too low, there's no reason that the disease wouldn't spread to other species that are more abundant. Trichomonas gallinae has long caused disease in birds. A new variant affecting British greenfinches, however, is particularly devastating. Trichomonas could very well cause the extinction of UK greenfinches.
Low is studying the differences between this variant and other forms of Trichomonas gallinae to try to understand what has made it so lethal. We're not entirely sure at this stage if that's normal for these organisms, whether they all look very different from each other, or whether this is a particular case where it just looks very different and strange.
Low likens his research to the current COVID pandemic, whereby scientists are aiming to keep tabs on mutations and the spread of new variants through the population. Generally speaking, the more transmissible an infection is, the less deadly it is. But we know that Trichomonas gallinae is transmitted through bird baths.
There's no reason not to kill that host, because it will always have the ability to be transmitted through the birdbath. This insight, plus the fact that it can take up to two years for birds to finally succumb to Trichomonas gallinae , means that many birds are at risk - all the way along the food chain. They won't get it from bird baths, they'll get it from eating finches. Trypanosoma brucei is a single-celled parasite that causes African trypanosomiasis , also known as African sleeping sickness.
Trichomonas vaginalis and Trichomonas gallinae are just two among a number of devastating pathogens that affect humans and other animals alike. Low, along with other scientists in the group, work on other common pathogens such as trypanosomes, which cause deadly diseases including African sleeping sickness and Chagas disease.
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